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 Posted by Kathy Block on June 19th, 2010During the development and expansion of the Southwest and most of the United States, burros, donkeys, and mules were important animals to use for transportation of people and goods, warfare, work in fields or mines, and occasionally food. Here are definitions for each of these animals.
A burro is the smaller originally wild version of a donkey or ass. Burro comes from the Spanish word for a small donkey. The Spanish conquistadors brought them to the Americas to use as work and pack animals. Burros, descended from this early Spanish stock, are differentiated from “donkeys,” larger animals descended from stock imported directly from Europe.
A donkey is a member of the equine family. They differ from horses because they are slower, smaller, hardier. Donkeys were first domesticated in ancient Egypt around 4000 B.C. By 1800 B.C. They reached the Middle East. Donkeys are of the species Equus asinus; horses are Equus caballos. The wild ancestor of the donkey is the African Wild Ass, Equus africanus asinus.
A mule is the result of breeding a male donkey (jack) and a female horse. A male horse can also be bred with a female donkey (jenny or jennet) to produce a hinny. Mules are larger than donkeys and stronger. They can pull larger loads and carry greater weights than donkeys. Mules are almost always infertile due to differences in the number of chromosomes. Horses have 64 pairs, donkeys have 62 pairs, and mules have 63 pairs. In very rare cases, mules have been able to breed. Mules are considered more desirable than hinnies due to bigger size and strength and are easier to handle, so mules are more common in total numbers.
Burro, Donkey, and Mule Trivia
Here’s a quick burro, donkey, and mule ” Trivia Quiz” to introduce some interesting facts about these animals.
(1) Who was “Brighty”?
(2) Approximately how many wild burros roam public lands in Arizona?
(3) What is a “mountain canary”?
(4) Which U.S. President imported the first “mammoth Jack” stock and donkeys and sought to produce quality work mules?
(5) Which U.S. Cavalry General preferred to ride a mule instead of a horse?
Answers:
 (1) “Brighty” was a shaggy little burro who actually lived in the Grand Canyon from 1892 to 1922. The award-winning 1953 book, Brighty of Grand Canyon, by Marguerite Henry (1902-1997), and later made into a 1967 movie, told the true story of this gentle burro. He spent summers carrying water from a spring below the rim to tourists and accompanied President Theodore Roosevelt hunting mountain lions in the Canyon. A statue of Brighty once stood at the entrance to Grand Canyon National Park and is now in the lobby of the Grand Canyon Lodge on the North Rim. All wild burros were removed by the Park Service. Now only mules for commercial pack trips and rides into the Canyon remain.
Mule pack train, Grand Canyon. Photo courtesy of Bonnie Helten
(2) There are approximately 1500 wild burros roaming public lands in seven management areas and three herd areas. According to BLM statistics for 2007, there were 406 near Wickenburg near Lake Pleasant, Alamo Lake, and the Harquahala area. Alamo Lake Campground, on the south side of the lake, is noted for the many burros that come to graze on the lawns.
Wild burros near Castle Hot Springs Road. Photo courtesy of Bonnie Helten.
The BLM manages and controls wild horses and burros under the authority of the 1971 Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act and the 1976 Federal Land Policy and Management Act. The BLM sees its major responsibility to determine the “appropriate management level” for wild horses and burros on the public rangelands. Because these animals have virtually no natural predators, their herd sizes can nearly double every four years. BLM’s goal is to make certain the number of wild horses and burros exists in balance with other public land resources and uses.
Wild burros near the Colorado River. Note the different colors. Photo courtesy of Barbara Thompson.
However, a recent 2009 amendment to the 1971 Act has been considered by the U.S. Senate. The Restore Our American Mustangs Act (ROAM) would expand wild horse and burro populations on all public lands. In the view of the Arizona Game and Fish Commission, this would greatly complicate management of wild horse and burro herds. The Commission voted in its September 2009 meeting to oppose this bill. Among concerns were restrictions on capturing and removing wild burros, and provisions for relocating them to possible new rangelands. The commission believes adequate funding to manage the current program, with its built-in checks and balances to prevent overpopulation and reduce resource damage on the range, is preferable.
(3) A “mountain canary” refers to the sound of a distinctive bray made by a donkey, which can bray (hee-haw) while breathing in and out. A mule can bray only on the exhale.
(4) President George Washington was the first United States mule breeder. The King of Spain, when Washington wrote him inquiring about purchasing good quality breeding stock, sent two Andalusian jacks and some jennets as a gift. Later, the Marquis de Lafayette sent Washington a black Maltese jack and several jennets. These animals were bred with his Andalusians to begin the “American Mammoth Jackstock.” mules.
General Crook on his mule, “Apache,” with White Mtn.Scout Alchesay on his right. U.S. Army Photo.
(5) General George C. Crook, 7th Calvary, noted for wars against the Apaches and others in the 1870s, preferred to ride a mule, named Apache, an animal he insisted was far superior to a horse. A famous photo shows him mounted on this mule. During the Battle of Slim Buttes on the Great Sioux Reservation, September 9-10, 1876, General Crook and his men soon began running short on supplies. He ordered his men to go on half rations. Soon, many of the men resorted to eating mules and horses. The U.S. Army used mules for transport of men and materials during the 1800s. President Abraham Lincoln reportedly, when reviewing troops of the Union Army, paid more attention to the comfort of the sturdy mules than of his officers. Mules were used during the Civil War to transport the cannons and other artillery. They wouldn’t spook and run away like horses, making them extremely important while in critical times of battle.
More about Burros & Donkeys
Burros are often pictured in Western lore and movies as walking alongside a prospector (usually looking for gold), carrying his gear and heavy packs. They are clever and curious and still largely used for pack animals in Central and South America. Many people adopt wild burros from BLM to use as pack animals or, more commonly, pets. If they are well-treated and well-trained, they appreciate and even seek attention and grooming.
Mother and baby burro in Oatman. Photo by Kathy Block.
In Oatman, Arizona, burros are a big tourist attraction. These descendents of burros lost or abandoned by early miners flock to town almost every day from nearby hills to beg for carrots from tourists and roam the streets and boardwalks. The townspeople have developed traditions, such as the first person to spot a newborn burro gets to name it. (They all have names.)
Baby burro curious about dog in baby carriage. Note paper diamond on forehead. Photo by Kathy Block.
Baby burros have paper diamonds attached to their foreheads to denote, “Don’t feed me, I can’t digest carrots.” Any other burro food is forbidden and a tourist caught feeding burros other food is gently scolded by the nearest shopkeeper.
Mother and albino baby taking a nap amid tourists. Photo by Kathy Block.
The BLM is not favorably viewed here, as they sometimes “cull excess burros.” Signs warn people that burros are wild animals; there have been incidents where tourists have been bitten or kicked — usually their own fault! Occasionally, despite warning signs, burros have been hit and killed on the highways leading to town.
Unhappy pack donkey. Sketch by Kathy Block.
Donkeys are used often for the same types of work that they have done for 8000 years – transportation (riding, pack animals, or pulling carts). These intelligent, friendly, playful, eager to learn animals are also used for work on farms, such as pulling plows, threshing, pulling of water from wells, and other jobs, mostly in Mediterranean countries today. Some people raise donkeys to breed mules. Donkeys are thought to have a calming effect on nervous horses and may be pastured or stabled together. A few donkeys are milked or raised for meat. Donkeys were used in the past by the Italian Army Mountain Fusiliers to carry their gear. In extreme circumstances they ate their donkeys.
Here’s a personal experience with donkeys. Many years ago, my husband Ed and I borrowed a donkey from a farmer, near our home in Portland, Oregon, and set off on a backpacking and hunting trip in Eagle Cap Wilderness in N.E. Oregon’s Wallowa Mountains. We were extreme novices! We had packs made of canvas that fitted over the donkey’s back and hung down on each side to carry our gear. Using a rented horse trailer, we transported “Jenny”, a large black donkey, to the trailhead and our adventures began. We soon learned she would refuse to cross a bridge, so one of us (usually Ed) would have to remove boots and socks and drag her across cold creeks thru the water. Once, when tied up at night, she broke free and we heard her braying the next morning to another donkey across a meadow. A fellow hiker had tied her to a post about a mile from camp. Ed shot a four-point mule deer buck. Bringing the meat back ws a challenge. We had to keep her head up whenever we stopped. Otherwise, she rolled on her side and back, crushing our cooking pan and gear. She tried to bite anyone who came too close to the pack to adjust it. A final hurdle was getting her back into the horse trailer in the parking lot. She refused to be led into the trailer and instead dragged Ed, who was clutching her lead rope, down the road away from the trailer. Some very amused horsemen finally lassoed her and helped load her, kicking and braying, into the trailer. During the ten hour trip home, she kicked and brayed most of the time, especially when we stopped briefly in our city neighborhood. We returned her to the farmer, along with some choice backstrap and $25 “rent”. Only then did he admit Jenny had never been used or trained as a pack animal. This was truly an experience!
A regular column in Gold Prospecting Magazine, published by the Gold Prospectors Association of America, features articles by Jackass Jill about her donkeys she uses for packing prospecting supplies. One article was about her donkey named Willy who wouldn’t get in a horse trailer with her other donkeys. So she closed the gate and drove away down a potholed dirt road! She soon heard a sound that sounded like “a fog horn with hiccups”. She stopped and the donkey came running with frantic braying and when she swung the trailer gate open, he hopped right in. It proved to be a loading technique that worked a few times since!
Mules were preferred to pull wagons of pioneers. They could pull wagons somewhat faster than oxen. For packing goods, a 900 pound mule with a short back and good size can carry up to 200 pounds all day without tiring excessively. The mule’s small hoofs enable them to dig into the uncertain footing of rocks and rock slides better than horses. Mules will follow other animals in a pack string better than horses. If a mule should fall, it will simply lie there and wait for help, while a horse might die from frantic struggling if it falls on its back or gets tangled in gear.
The famous 20-Mule Team of Death Valley was actually 18 mules and 2 horses as leads. They carried borax from “Borax Works” mills in Death Valley to the railroad in harsh conditions thru the desert. They traveled 16 to 18 miles per day from Furnace Creek in Death Valley over 162 miles of trail, to Baker, Mojave, and Daggett. The trip took about 10 days. July to October the work stopped due to temperatures as high as136 degrees in Death Valley. Early wagons had unseasoned wheel spokes which shrunk from the heat. The spokes had to be replaced with thoroughly dried wood. Some wagons are on display at Furnace Creek in Death Valley.
Frank Crampton, in Deep Enough, often mentioned the use of mules to haul ore from the mines in the Wickenburg area for processing and shipping. Sometimes rather cruel methods were used to train mules.
On the historic Old Spanish Trail, which connected Santa Fe and Los Angeles, trains of pack mules, from 1829 to 1849, mainly carried woolen goods. High-quality woolen products from New Mexico were traded for horses and mules. When Santa Fe merchant Antonio Armijo opened this 2,700 mile long trail, considered the longest, crookedest, most arduous pack mule trail in the history of America, he led 60 men and 100 mules. Towards the end of the trail, some of the mules were eaten out of necessity. The need for the Old Spanish Trail disappeared in 1849, as easier trails for wagons opened, and the land, which had been part of Mexico, was ceded to the United States after the Mexican-American war.
Arrastra at Garlock, California. This one used a motor, but the function is similar. Photo by Ed Block.
Mules were very useful in mining. Mines in many areas used arrastras to crush ore. Mules or donkeys were hitched to wooden bars and walked around in circles, dragging stones over the floor to grind the ore, usually within a circular walled enclosure.
The Silver Queen mine in Bisbee, Arizona and others would bring mules into the mine and stable them underground. Often they’d remain there until they were no longer useful to haul ore carts. The miners found they’d balk at returning underground if they were brought outside to pasture. Supposedly some mules became blind from lack of light and sun.
Mules as Food
Mules have been eaten as a survival food in various situations. In one famous incident, John C. Fremont, as a private citizen in 1848, led a party of 33 men and 100 mules over the San Juan Mountains by way of the Rio Grande valley, in the middle of winter, despite warnings from Bill Williams, a fur trapper and mountain man. As they reached the 12,000 foot level amid deep snows, Williams took a wrong turn. They were trapped and starving. Fremont sent four men south to New Mexico for help. After 16 days Fremont took four men with him down river, leaving the rest to fend for themselves. Eventually eleven men died, all the mules died and were eaten, and all equipment was destroyed. A journal entry from this expedition joked about eating mules as:
“BILL OF FARE. CAMP DESOLATION. Dec. 25, 1848. (Christmas Day). MENU: SOUP. Mule tail, fish-baked white mule. Broiled gray mule. MEATS-Mule steak, fried mule, mule chops, broiled mule, stewed mule, boiled mule, scrambled mule, shirred mule, french fried mule, minced mule. DAMNED MULE – mule on toast (without the toast), short ribs of mule with apple sauce (without the apple sauce), relishes – Black mule, brown mule, yellow mule, bay mule, roan mule. Beverages: snow, snow-water, water.”
Native American Apaches allegedly liked to steal the white man’s mule to kill and eat. On the frontier, this was a real threat, as “the Apache Indian like mule meat as much as he hated the white man.” Another article stated that among most Native Americans, horses and mules -many stolen from miners and travelers or the Army- were so valuable in the hunt, war, and as pack animals, that they were only eaten in times of famine or when there was nothing else to eat, or during feasts, for religious rituals, or to honor important guests. The journals of Lewis and Clark reported that Northwest natives preferred mule meat to wild game.
Now, there are restrictions in the United States against buying or selling horse or mule meat as human food. Pet food can be produced from horse and mule meat, under strict guidelines. Horse and mule meat is still sold and consumed in Europe and other countries. A quick Internet search yielded an advertisement from a company in India that sold all forms of horse and mule meats, flash frozen, and shipped to you overnight!
Summary
In summary, burros, donkeys, and mules were useful animals in the development of the American frontier and in farming, mining, wars, and transportation. The occupation of “mule skinner” had lore of its own. There are magazines devoted to mules, i.e. “Mules and More” (a magazine for mule and donkey enthusiasts since 1980), and “Western Mule Magazine.” Books and Internet sites abound about how to raise, train, and use donkeys and mules as pack animals. There are many clubs and organizations for aficionados of burros, donkeys, and mules. The use of these animals may have shifted in modern times, but they remain popular as part of our Western and Southwestern history.
Note: The author wishes to thank Allan Hall for urging me to write this article after hearing the anecdote of the adventures of Ed and I with the donkey; and Bonnie Helten, who reviewed the article with a keen eye for any errors about horses. Any errors of fact are my own, though!
 Posted by Jim Cook on May 21st, 2010The Journal of Disbelief
If Jim Cook were a blogger, and not a liar, this is what he would blog today.
In the 1950s, the Trailways bus station in Flagstaff was housed in the railroad depot. Many nights, I sat in a cafe across the street, drinking coffee with my buddies and talking about our dreams of the future.
If black people got off the Trailways bus and started toward the cafe, the proprietress met them at the door. She told them she couldn’t serve them.
The African-Americans did not act surprised, or outraged. They were refused service all across America. Many of us sensed that it was wrong, but accepted it as the way of the world–bigotry by default.
A black person needed to carry his food with him when he traveled. He also could not rent a hotel room, except in cities large enough to support black-only hotels. That discrimination was ended by the Civil Rights Act of 1964, also known as the Voting Rights Act.
Now there’s a Senate candidate in Kentucky, Rand Paul, who thinks the Civil Rights Act should have excluded private businesses which wanted to discriminate against people of color.
Whatever your politics, you’ll probably agree with me that lately, the world has been getting crazier faster. Your definition of “crazier” may be different than mine, and that’s fine. This is America–so far.
During my years as a journalist, I reported on the movements of the time as they came along: the civil rights movement, the protest against the Vietnam war, the women’s movement. Things moved more slowly then, but they tended to move forward.
I was optimistic, but I also was naive. It didn’t take long to realize that whatever gains are made, new bigots are spawned every day. We are all born ignorant. Some of us try to get over it, and others pass it on to their children.
Furthermore, the idea of freedom scared the living hell out of some conservative Americans and their institutions. At this moment, educators in Texas are trying to rewrite school history books to represent a conservative bias.
I believe that I wrote the first serious article about women’s liberation in Arizona. I didn’t intend for it to be serious, but an organizer for the women’s movement made so much sense that she didn’t leave me room to be snide. Those were the days when women mentioned in news articles were not allowed first names; a woman was identified as “Mrs. John Somuch.”
The organized warned me that I would receive more complaints from women than from men. She was right. The housewives of Mesa were furious. I had challenged their traditional roles. But over the years, I watched several traditional women demand equality, fight for it, accept it as their due.
I came to understand that there are always people and institutions that would drag us back into the Nineteenth Century.The coal industry has come close.
There are people in Congress who bang on their high chairs in front of CNN cameras every time someone suggests governance that does not favor their favorite contributing industry. Some of these guys can’t even have a civil discourse with themselves.
Any measure that suggests a more beneficial relationship between a taxpayer and his government is called “socialism,” and in some cases it is. Social Security sure isn’t classic capitalism. That would be British Petroleum.
Despite ourselves, we have come a long way since 1964. In general, more people are more equal than they used to be. The knuckle-draggers have slowed progress, but they haven’t stopped it.
So now we have a candidate for the U.S. Senate who thinks the Voting Rights Act of 1964 went too far. It would be easy to ignore him, but I suspect he has a lot of friends out there. Still.
Posted by Kathy Block on May 8th, 2010Here are some spring cactus blooms in our yard. I took the photos as soon as I saw the blooms, as cottontail rabbits eat every bloom they can reach!
Prickly Pear Cactus Flowers
This first show shows two different prickly pear cactus flowers. Prickly pear cactus flowers appear in a variety of colors, from pale yellow to bright fuchsia.
 
Cholla Cactus Flowers
 There is also a wide variety of types of cholla. This one features large, pink flowers.
 Posted by Maria Langer on April 11th, 2010Cactus flowers are often more spectacular than desert wildflowers. Unlike wildflowers, however, cacti bloom faithfully every year, not depending much on winter rains to produce flowers.
In this second installment of my “What’s Blooming Now” series, I begin exploring the many bright colors of cactus flowers, starting with the hedgehog cactus.
Strawberry Hedgehog Cactus
Strawberry hedgehog cactus in bloom in the desert southeast of Wickenburg. Photographed on April 7, 2010. (Click for a larger image.)
Among the first cactus to bloom in the Sonoran desert each spring is the strawberry hedgehog cactus. This small, low-growing cactus features clusters of green cylindrical stems covered with long spines ranging in color from cream to reddish to black.
The flowers grow from the top of the cactus and appear in vivid shades of magenta. Three inches wide, they’re impossible to miss among the desert vegetation. They bloom for several days and then produce a small, red, edible fruit.
The claret cup cactus is similar in appearance but produces a smaller, red-orange flower. Although it does not normally grow at Wickenburg’s elevation, I’ve seen several specimens in landscaped gardens around town.
Posted by Maria Langer on April 7th, 2010After a long, rainy winter, we’ve been rewarded with an abundant collection of wildflowers. Over the next few weeks, I’ll be sharing my photos of what’s blooming in the Wickenburg area with wickenburg-az.com readers. I urge you to get out and about in the desert to enjoy nature’s colorful display.
Poppies
Poppies are among the first flowers to appear in the desert in the springtime. I’ve had poppies appear in my yard as early as January! This year, however, they began blooming in March and, as I write this, are still blanketing hillsides with their bright yellow flowers.
The most common type of poppy in Arizona is the Mexican Gold Poppy. It grows at elevations below 4,500 feet on slops, plains, foothills, and mesas. The plants grow from seeds each year and bloom in full sunlight only, closing each night. After pollination, the plants produce long seed pods with many tiny dark seeds. When the pods dry, they “pop” to spread the seeds.
You can see poppies just about anywhere around Wickenburg. Some landscape companies consider them weeds and will remove them when performing landscape maintenance. But you have to admit that they’re a beautiful addition to our natural landscape for the few weeks we get to enjoy them each year.
Posted by Maria Langer on April 4th, 2010I was sitting at an early Easter dinner with friends in a downtown Wickenburg apartment when my host, Warren, said, “Do you feel that? The building is shaking.”
It was 3:40 PM on Sunday, April 4, 2010.
At first, I didn’t feel a thing. But then it seemed as if my chair were moving ever so slightly. The hanging light fixture over the table was swaying.
Janet, who spent many years in earthquake-prone California, said, “It’s just the wind.”
The windows were open, but it wasn’t that windy. When Janet’s eyes remained fixed on the swaying light fixture, I knew that even she didn’t believe her own words.
And then it was over. We talked for a few minutes about the unlikelihood of it being an earthquake in Arizona. We thought it might be a large truck driving down the road or perhaps a passing train. Someone joked about “the big one” in California giving all of us in Arizona waterfront property. Conversation turned to other things, including the nasty habit of some train engineers who liked to blast the horn as they drove through town.
The area earthquake map at 8:22 PM Sunday night. The blue and red squares are earthquakes within the past day and hour; the big blue one is the 3:40 PM event.
Three hours later, when I returned home, I fired up my computer and pointed the Web browser to the USGS Latest Earthquakes in the World page. There had been a lot of small earthquakes in Southern California and Baja California in Mexico over the past hour. I scrolled down and hit paydirt: a 7.2 magnitude earthquake in Baja California, Mexico, 38 miles south of Mexicali.
Could this be what we’d felt? A trip to the home page for AZCentral.com confirmed that the quake had been felt in Phoenix.
We did some more research and even made a report to the USGS using the Did You Feel It? page for the event. By this time, hours after the event, more than 44,000 people had reported feeling the earthquake as far away as Wyoming. Our report was one of a dozen made from Wickenburg.
Posted by Kathy Block on March 28th, 2010Last Spring my brother-in-law Bill was two miles along his favorite hiking trail at Granite Dells in Prescott when a frantic woman ran up to him. She thrust a convulsing poodle into his arms. The unfortunate dog had been bitten by a Western Diamondback rattler on the trail. The poodle became limp in his arms before they reached her car. It was dead.
I was one step away from putting my leg by an active baby rattler on the shady path up to the cave at Sayers Spring off Constellation Road, until I heard its rattled warning.
Arizona Black Rattlesnake (Crotalus cereberus) by Ed Block. This snake grows up to 42″ long. The young are vividly patterned and can look very different from adults.
Finally, my husband encountered a black rattlesnake guarding the entrance to an adit in the Bradshaws off Senator Highway. Most of these encounters occurred mid-morning or late afternoon, though we’ve seen large “coon-tail” rattlers,(Diamondbacks), some five feet long, in warm mid-day sun in San Domingo Wash, east of Wickenburg.
You also have probably seen/heard about/photographed rattlesnake encounters! A rattlesnake is technically a “pit viper”, which means it has a small pit between the nostril and eye on each side of the head. The bite of the Pit Viper is a lightning-like strike, usually on the legs or hands, as the snake injects venom from two fangs in the forward portion of the upper jaw. These fangs leave two distinctive puncture wounds at the point of entry. Rattlers use the “loreal pit”, a heat-sensing organ between the nostril and the eye, to locate prey and potential predators and any threatening animal like you or your pet. Their glands make venom, much like your saliva glands make saliva. The rattle is made of keratin, the same material found in your hair and fingernails, and the age of a rattler can’t be determined by counting the segments of its rattle!
According to information on a colorful poster available from the BLM, there are at least 13 species of rattlesnakes in Arizona. A total of 36 rattlesnake species are found living only in North and South America. A free booklet, available from the Arizona Game and Fish Department, “Arizona Wildlife Amphibians and Reptiles”. has sketches and information about 12 snakes, 8 of which are non-poisonous. Of the 13 venomous rattlesnakes found in Arizona, 5 definitely may be found near Wickenburg. An excellent website, www.reptilesofaz.org, offers color photos and information on snakes, reptiles, and amphibians found in Arizona. The snakes most often seen in the Wickenburg area are:
- Poisonous: Mohave (the most deadly), Western Diamondback, Sidewinder, and Black-tailed rattlesnakes. You may also encounter a Black rattlesnake and Speckled Rattlesnake.
- Non-poisonous: Gopher snake (tragically often mistaken for a rattlesnake), Rosy Boa, common Kingsnake, and Coachwhip.
Speckled Rattlesnake. (Crotalus mitchelli). Photo courtesy of Allan Hall. This beautiful snake grows up to 51″ long. The color, which often matches its surroundings, can vary greatly from nearly white to pink, gray or brown.
Rattlesnakes serve an important role in desert ecology, with their diets (varying by species) of primarily lizards, centipedes, rodents, small mammals, birds, small-sized snakes, spiders, and sometimes carrion. A friend sent a photo of a rattlesnake eating a small rabbit! They can also be food for hawks, owls, roadrunners, and other predators, depending on size. I have talked with people who have eaten rattlesnakes meat and claim it tastes somewhat like bony chicken. There was a small business near Tombstone, Arizona where the owners made wallets, pendants, etc. from cured rattlesnake skins. Unless you or your pet are threatened by a snake (which will often slither away and hide when threatened instead of blindly striking), please don’t wantonly kill it just because it’s a rattlesnake. We often slow down to allow snakes to cross the road, if safe for us to do so.
Avoiding Unpleasant Rattlesnake Experiences
Here are some tips for avoiding unpleasant encounters with rattlesnakes while hiking, horseback riding, or camping in the Wickenburg area:
- Be aware of your surroundings and preferred snake habitat. Snakes seek cover in rocks, brush, cool dark spots during the heat of mid-day. They often emerge mid-morning and late afternoon. Dens may be in mine adits, small caves, amid piles of rocks, or under brush piles, or in cavities in washes. Look and listen before you walk near their habitat or put your hands or feet up on rocky paths or climbing areas. We (my husband Ed and I), while hiking out to lava caves in S.E. Oregon, have seen a rattler coil and began rattling only after several people had walked past its hiding place in rocks! Many people wear “snake chaps” if hiking or exploring in brushy, rocky areas.
- If you should encounter a rattlesnake on a road or path and want to take a photo, stay a respectful distance of at least six feet away. Consider taking a telephoto shot. A fat Western Diamondback we encountered in San Domingo Wash east of Wickenburg was stretched out full length — a least 5 feet — on the road. As soon as I approached to take a photo, it began to coil into a striking position. They can move faster than one might think. They don’t always rattle a warning. The Vulture Mine office used to have a cage with several young Diamondbacks. Our BLM office, in Lake Havasu City, has a live display of typical snakes and reptiles of the area. It had a Diamondback they named “Houdini” because he escaped so often from his “escape proof” aquarium. The gals would fear opening up the office, as he sometimes sought shelter under their desks. He was finally returned to the desert!
Mohave Rattlesnake. [Corrected identification; thanks to reader Bryan Hughes for pointing this out.] Photo courtesy of Bonnie Helten.
The distinctive black and white tail helps identify Diamondbacks. A note on tail patterns. If the black and white bands are equal width, then it’s the Diamondback. If the last few inches of the tail are whitish with narrow black bands and black bands are narrower than light bands, then it’s most likely the deadly Mohave Rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus). The Diamondback preys mainly on small mammals. The Mohave eats primarily rodents, but also eats lizards, amphibians, and birds. The Diamondback is considered to be one of the most dangerous snakes in the U.S, due to it’s large size, wide distribution, and nervous disposition. The Mohave has very potent venom, making it also one of the most dangerous snakes in the U.S. Two to eleven young are born live to Mohave green rattlers,, and have fully developed fangs and venom, as with all rattlesnakes.
Black-tailed Rattlesnake. (Crotalus molossus). Photo courtesy of Allan Hall. This snake grows up to 48″ long and colors can vary greatly from brown or beige to green or golden yellow.
Keeping Dogs and other Animals Safe
Besides keeping your dog on a leash and incidentally watching any small children when you are out on a trail or in brush, there are other ways to keep your pet safe.
Aversive conditioning is one option for dogs especially. A shock collar is placed around the dog’s neck, The dog is exposed to a defanged rattlesnake. As the dog approaches, following a natural tendency to sniff out and investigate a strange scent or animal, it receives a shock. I have been told that this works well in most cases, with few “learning” shocks necessary!
A preventive rattlesnake vaccine for dogs is produced by Red Rock Biologics and is available thru veterinarians. It works by stimulating an animal’s immunity to defend against potentially harmful agents in the venom. It is, quoting from their informational brochure, “intended to help create an immunity that will protect your dog against rattlesnake venom.” It costs about $45 for one shot, then another $45 for a booster, for protection that lasts about one year.
Notice the eyes in this photo by the late Lee Pearson, courtesy of Allan Hall.
What to Do if You or your Pet are Bitten
Remember the dying dog my brother-in-law tried to rescue? There is a lot of information on the Internet . Here’s a quick summary of important steps to take. Some writers recommend printing out first aid information and affixing it to a card to carry with you. Other people carry rattlesnake bite kits (which we do) that have quick first aid information on a small card.
- Recognize the symptoms of a poisonous bite: bloody wound discharge; fang marks in skin and swelling in the site of the bite; severe localized pain; diarrhea; burning sensations; convulsions, fainting and/or weakness; blurred vision; excessive sweating, fever; increased thirst; loss of muscle coordination; nausea and vomiting; numbness and tingling; and rapid pulse. Not pleasant!
- Get away from the snake. DO NOT handle the body or head (if it was severed). A rattler can bite up to an hour after decapitation. A spasm from a “dead” snake will reflectively deliver the full load of venom, which can be worse than from a live snake!
- If possible, call 911 immediately. But, if you are in a remote or inaccessible areas, you and/or your companion will have to deal with the bite. Try to stay calm!
- DO NOT elevate the wounded area. Keep the bite BELOW the level of the heart. Most bites are on the legs, but if you are bitten on an arm, keep it lowered. This will slow the spread of venom thru your system. This makes venom-carrying blood work against, rather than with, the pull of gravity to reach your heart or the rest of your body.
- Wash the area, if possible, with warm water and soap.
- Remove constricting clothing and jewelry from the extremity. The area may swell and constricting items will cause tissue death.
- Do not cut or suck on the wound. Some snake bite kits use extractor pumps with suction devices. Any kit is useless unless used immediately after the bite. Even just a few minutes later the venom (if any) will have spread too far thru your bloodstream to be sucked out!
- If there’s a digital camera available, take a photo of the snake, rather than trying to handle a “dead” snake. But, it’s not that important to identify the rattlesnake, as medical crews in areas prone to snake bites (like some areas around Wickenburg) can often identify whether it was a pit viper just from the wound.
- Antivenin (correct spelling) is usually administered when a victim is taken to a hospital.
Closeup of rattlesnake head and tongue. Photo courtesy of Bonnie Helten.
Dogs (and possibly humans) can be treated by a very expensive antivenin called crotalidae polyvalent, made by a company called Fort Dodge in Fort Dodge, Iowa. It’s a concentrated preparation of “equine serum globulins obtained by fractioning blood from healthy horses that have been immunized with venoms.” One venom is from Western Diamondbacks. The antivenin neutralizes the venom with a protective substance. A dose of 10 to 50 ml (one to five vials) is given intravenously. Dosage varies by severity of the symptoms, lapse of time after the bite, size of snake, and size of victim. Then, additional doses may be required every 2 hours if pain and swelling persist or recur. Supportive therapy includes antibiotics, called dexamethasone, for four days afterward. Cost? At least $500 for ONE vial for a small dog! Plus further treatment and clinic expenses. Vaccines are much more reasonable!
The death incidence worldwide from snake bites is greater in dogs than in any other domestic animal. The area most frequently bitten is the head region, sometimes the shoulders, thighs or legs. Fatalities in horses and cats are less common, though may occur if the animal is bitten on the face or neck. In the Southwest, most snake bites to animals are from the Western Diamondback.
Human bite statistics are not compiled nationwide. Here’s some data:
- Of poisonous bites in the U.S., 55 percent are from rattlesnakes, 34 percent from copperheads, 10 percent from water moccasins, and only 1 percent from coral snakes.
- Rattlesnake bites account for 70 percent of fatalities, and 95 to 98 percent of their bites occur on extremities.
- Baby rattlers are capable of inflicting a venomous bite at birth.
- As many as 25 percent of venomous pit viper bites have NO venom injected, possibly because their fangs may be injured, venom sacs may be empty at the time of the bite, or the snake may not use the fangs when it strikes.
- There are about 400 rattlesnake bites a year in Arizona. Fewer than 275 are treated. An internet article by Kate Nolan, “Is Rattlesnake’s Bite Growing Deadlier?” The Arizona Republic, June 14, 2008, suggests that despite a slight rise in the number of snakebites reported, state wildlife and toxicology experts remain skeptical of both the supposed rise in venom toxicity and the significance of the small increase in the number of serious bites. Instead, probable causes are habitat destruction, more people moving into snake territory, and variations in toxicity of venom among individual snakes. A researcher found that venom from one rattlesnake can be up to ten times as toxic as that of another of the same type, depending on the location of the snake.
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Giant Rattlesnake. Better make sure it’s dead! (Sent by friend).
There is a death about every 24-36 months on the average. At least 5 deaths have occurred in Arizona since 2002. Everyone bitten, whether they die or not, has long- lasting consequences including some loss of motor dexterity and loss of tissue.
- Ninety percent of those bitten are doing something they should not be doing in the first place . That includes crowding too close, trying to handle the snake (either when it’s dead or alive), and general carelessness in the snake’s territory.
Final Word
Be aware; be respectful of rattlesnakes and their territory. Know what to do if you or your pet are bitten!
Thank you to Lisa Luna, DVM, and Glen Mishkin of Paws and Claws Veterinary Clinic in Lake Havasu City, Arizona for information on dog vaccines and antivenin treatments.
 Posted by Allan Hall on March 25th, 2010In Part Two of this series, “Preserving Abandoned Mines – Protective Closures,” I explored some of the methods used to preserve abandoned mines that support wildlife habitats, including fences, gates and cupolas. While simple fences are easily constructed with inexpensive materials, they do not prevent a determined individual from entering an abandoned mine. When it is appropriate to preserve the underground habitats, it becomes necessary to use materials and construction methods that are far more robust.
About fourteen miles south of Wickenburg there is an abandoned mine shaft popularly known as the “Whispering Ranch” Mine. Its real name is lost in the fog of history, but it is barely two miles south of the historic Vulture Mine, on BLM-administered land near Whispering Ranch Road. [1] Like all other abandoned mines on public lands, this shaft was slated for destructive closure. As part of their pre-closure assessment, the BLM engaged biologists from the Arizona Game and Fish Department [2] and Bat Conservation International (BCI) [3] in June 2009 to perform quick inspections of the underground workings at this and other area mines, including the Mammoth Spar.
Figure 1, California Leaf-Nosed Bat. (Photo by Jason Corbett, BCI; used with permission.)
Conservation biologists from both organizations discovered a summer roost of California Leaf-Nosed Bats (Macrotus californicus) in the Whispering Ranch Mine, but none in the five shafts at the Mammoth Spar. In preparing its recommendations to BLM, the Arizona Game and Fish Department concluded that the bats at Whispering Ranch could be “excluded” from the mine and plans for destructive closure could proceed. In this case, the exclusion was merited because the bats were not believed to be using the mine as a permanent habitat. In general, the process of exclusion involves covering the mine entrance to prevent bats from reestablishing a roost. This must occur at times of the year when the colony is active and necessarily requires adequate inspection to ensure that the underground workings have been vacated.
Arizona Game & Fish returned to the Whispering Ranch Mine in late 2009 to conduct the exclusion, but immediately discovered that another (or same) colony of bats was using the shaft during the winter season as well. This discovery triggered permanent protection and meant that protective closure was warranted. Underground surveys showed that Barn Owls (Tyto alba) were also roosting and nesting in the mine.
There are two drifts (underground tunnels that follow an ore vein) above the 180 foot level of the mine. Arizona Game & Fish and BCI biologists determined that the upper drift was occupied by the bats, while the lower drift was used by the owls.
The California Leaf-Nosed Bat does not hibernate in winter, as some species are known to do. Therefore, it must forage for insects throughout the year. That this mine is used in both the warm and colder months indicates that the subterranean conditions and area food sources are suitable for long-term colonization. Barn Owls feed primarily on rodents, but bats are occasionally part of their diet. However, co-colonization of a mine by these species is not as rare as you might think. According to Jason Corbett, the Conservation Biologist and Southwest Subterranean Program Coordinator for BCI,
… the owls and bats use the same site, just at different times of the year. I have been into roosts where I have actually seen owls eating bats and have found bat skeleton parts in owl pellets. This seems to be more common in caves and with Great Horned Owls as opposed to the Barn Owls that I see in the mines. However, I’m sure there is some overlap and I’d bet that predation does occur.
The partnership that exists between AGFD, BCI and BLM ensured that BCI would be contacted on the latest finding. Since this would be a protective closure, BCI took a project proposal to the Freeport McMoRan Company with a request for funding. [4] Freeport agreed to fund the project and BCI contacted MineGates Inc. in Tucson to request their availability. [5]
Before we review the project to install a cupola, let’s briefly examine the history of the mine.
Short Historical Record of the Mine Site
What little is known about the Whispering Ranch site depends upon physical evidence rather than historical documents, and can be summarized into the following statements:
- The shaft is at least 180 feet deep and contains two relatively short underground drifts.
- A complex wood cribbing, at what “appears” to be the bottom of the shaft, may have a trap door leading to a lower level.
- Except for the cribbing in the sump, the walls of the shaft are fully exposed and the country rock appears to be stable.
- The mine dump measures approximately 12,200 square feet in two sections 85′ X 90′ and 70′ by 65′. Its depth ranges from about 5 feet to more than 15 feet. Waste material is uniform in color and rock content; suggesting there were no cross cuts and that either a single vein or multiple veins containing similar ore was the objective. [6]
- The volume of waste material on the mine dump significantly exceeds the volume of the shaft and two drifts (by a factor of more than 4:1). This suggests that there is a working level beneath the crib at 180 feet.
- The mine dump contains abundant samples of mineralized copper, but shows no indication that gold, silver or other ores were present.
- There is no tailing pile, indicating that mill ready ore (if any) was shipped off-site.
- The head frame was constructed of wood, but was probably dismantled when operations ceased. Concrete footings for the frame and cable hoist have survived to the present day.
- An abundance of bent nails suggests there may have been one or two wood buildings; but no wood remains. There are no remains or evidence of concrete floors. A few pieces of corrugated metal siding remain on the site.
- Cans were found in the trash field near the mine that can be dated to the period between 1887 and 1904. All of the cans contain the characteristic solder top and were manufactured using the “Norton’s Side Seam” method.
- One meat can has been dated to the period between 1900 and 1904. It is likely this mine had its origins around the turn of the 20th Century.
- A BLM archaeologist found materials that could be dated to the early 1920′s, but it is not known if these items were incidental or proof of operation beyond the early 1900′s. For example, there is a small cluster of broken china plates and bowls near the site. One of them bears the name of The Wellsville China Company, which establishes a date of 1917 or later. Whether the plates were used during the operational phase of the mine is not known. There is very little glass in the vicinity of the mine site.
- Small, white porcelain insulators show that the mine workings had electricity during at least part of its operational existence.
- This mine is less than one mile from Vulture City, making it possible that workers lived at the town site rather than at the mine. This would account for the modest size of the trash dump.
- The date range of the trash suggests the mine could have been developed and worked intermittently over a period of years, rather than during a single, short period.
Figure 2 shows a can that is narrowly dated to the period between 1900 and 1904. This type of key opener was patented in Canada in 1900. The solder top (seen as a gray “blob” on the lid) was no longer used after 1904.
Figure 2, Key-type meat can with solder top, 1900-1904.
Figure 3 shows the concrete bases for the cable hoist. The Head Frame was located to the right of this photo and was positioned next to the shaft. Without historical photos or sketches of the mine workings, it is impossible to know the height of the Head Frame. The dimensions of the cable hoist foundations, their spatial separation, and anchor positions of the frame suggest that it was probably not more than twenty-four feet tall.
Figure 3, Cable Hoist.
According to Jason Corbett, the apparent bottom of the shaft (the location of the cribbing at the 180 foot level) was remarkably free of trash and rock. In other words, the shaft had not been used for dumping trash, and very few rocks or soil had fallen to the bottom. Jason reported that the floor of the crib gave a hollow sound when he tested it. It is assumed that the shaft continues to an unknown depth beyond the false floor.
The Gating Project
Once the mine was confirmed as a habitat requiring permanent protection, a company that specializes in the protective closure of mines and caves was brought on site to help assess the mine opening and develop an appropriate gate design. Tom Gilleland and his company, MineGates, Inc., located in Tucson, completed a design that would provide vertical and horizontal flyways for bats, while also accommodating the requirements of Barn Owls. The design incorporated a three-dimensional cupola that looks like an inverted box with a large, flat base that would safely extend beyond the edge of the shaft in all directions. A month-long construction process began at their shop and the gate was finally ready for installation in early February 2010.
Figure 4 shows the condition of the mine entrance just before installation project commenced. A fence enclosure had been in place for several years. Before the protective gate could be installed, it was necessary to remove about five feet of overburden from the dump and clear a path to the shaft.
Figure 4, Shaft Collar and Overburden.
As the waste material was being removed to an adjacent holding area, we had the opportunity to examine numerous samples of mineralized copper ore – primarily chrysacolla.
Removal of the waste rock is necessary for three reasons. First, it is loosely compacted and subject to erosion. Second, the gate needs to rest on solid rock to prevent anyone from digging underneath the structure. Finally, high strength steel rods are driven into the bedrock and welded to the frame to prevent the cupola from being moved. Figure 5 shows the clearing stage underway.
Figure 5, Removing the Overburden.
Great care was taken to prevent rocks and soil from falling into the shaft. Working around a vertical shaft requires abundant precaution, as evidenced in Figure 6.
Figure 6, Tom Gilleland and Jason Corbett.
In this image Tom Gilleland (MineGates) and Jason Corbett (BCI) use shovels to clear loose soil from the edge of the mine portal. Safety is a paramount concern when you are this close to a shaft, and both are wearing safety harnesses and ropes. Each is a veteran of many hundreds of descents into caves and mines in Arizona and other western states. As a conservation biologist, Jason has conducted more than 500 underground mine surveys in Arizona and an equal number in other western states. Tom has been in more than 400 mines and caves in Arizona and more than 1000 worldwide.
After the waste material was removed from around the shaft, the next phase of the project was ready to begin. Because of its size, the cupola and stability aprons were transported to the site in three pieces. Final assembly typically occurs on site.
Figure 7, Bruce Lynn (MineGates) Welding Apron to Cupola.
Each apron – which is designed to extend beyond the perimeter of the shaft – must be welded to the cupola before installation. In Figure 7, Bruce Lynn (MineGates) is completing the top weld on one of the aprons.
Weighing in at 5,000 pounds, and measuring 15 by 13 feet, positioning the assembled gate next to the shaft was no easy matter – and darkness was rapidly approaching.
Figure 8, Positioning the Gate.
In Figure 8, Bruce Lynn and Jason Corbett confer on the strategy for off- loading the gate next to the shaft. When work resumed the next morning, the cupola would have to be positioned so that it would not drag rocks into the shaft. Wood planks were inserted under the aprons to make it easier to drag into place.
Work resumed the next morning under the threat of rain, but by 9:30 a.m. the structure was in its final position over the shaft.
Figure 9, Cupola in Place. Bruce Lynn and Tom Gilleland look down the shaft.
The high-strength materials used for construction of the gate include “manganal,” a type of hardened steel with high manganese content. The horizontal rods provide the openings necessary for bats and owls, but keep people out. Only a few tasks remained before completion of the project.
Next, manganal rods were driven into the bedrock and welded to the frame, and two perches were installed at the raptor opening for owls. Finally, a camera perch had to be attached to the inside edge of the cupola.
Figure 10, Installing Camera Perch.
The camera perch is an important tool for studying bat and owl activity in the future. Motion activated devices will be installed periodically to learn more about roosting and nesting activity at different seasons.
Figure 11, Dump Material Used for Berm.
Waste material that had earlier been removed to provide access to the shaft was moved back in place for landscaping around the aprons and to form berms that would discourage vehicle traffic. The installation project was now complete and one shaft had been saved for wildlife.
In Part 4 we will explore a few aspects of the economic and ecological importance of protecting bat habitats in abandoned mines, as well as the prospects for their preservation. Tom Gilleland and Jason Corbett will provide some reflections on the significance of their work.
Footnotes and References
[1] The mine can be reached by driving 13.2 miles south on Vulture Mine Road from the intersection of West Wickenburg Way (U.S. 60), until arriving at Whispering Ranch Road. Turn left and proceed 1.0 miles. The mine dump will be visible on your right, about 100 yards south of Whispering Ranch Road. Total driving distance is 14.2 miles. GPS coordinates are: N33 47.646′ by W112 49.812′ (WGS84).
[2] See the Arizona Game and Fish Department’s involvement in protecting bat habitats on the web at: http://www.azgfd.gov/w_c/bat_conservation.shtml
[3] Learn about Bat Conservation International on the web at: http://www.batcon.org/
[4] Freeport McMoRan is one of the world’s largest copper, gold and molybdenum producers. They are headquartered in Phoenix, Arizona.
[5] To learn more about MineGates, Inc., visit their website at http://www.minegates.com
[6] A contrasting example would be the Black Rock Mine on Constellation Road, east of Wickenburg. There, the mine dump shows two distinctly different types of waste rock in the pursuit of both silver and gold.
Posted by Jim Cook on March 14th, 2010The Journal of Prevarication
Exasperating Literal-minded Scholars Since 1979
By Jim Cook
Official State Liar of Arizona
Long-time friend Steve Auslander of Tucson wrote, “I wonder whether being an official state liar means the lies one tells are official lies. If it is so, then should not the lie bear some official status, such as a stamp declaring that the lie is official?”
This is what our design staff came up with:
Steve wrote a learned discourse on obfuscation, prevarication, equivocation, and the body waste of male cattle. We only have room to repeat the flattering part:
“I must say I am a big fan and am certain that in time your efforts will be recognized, even extolled, as developing an entire academic discipline, as developing an intellectual paradigm, a cosmic shift of cross-discipline study that will bear enormous fruit. Then doctoral graduates of Factual Diversity will fructify the land with wise counsel.”
That’s what we’re striving for, from multiple platforms.
Spinning the Roundabout: My brother Dean, who lives in Glendale, e-mailed the Arizona Department of Transportation about a mound of earth in the middle of a new roundabout. The roundabout lets drivers escape the U.S. 93 bypass and enter downtown Wickenburg.
Dean’s e-mail: “The roundabout on the east end of the U.S. 93 bypass at Wickenburg has a dangerous design flaw. The mound in the center of the roundabout prevents traffic entering from the west on U.S. 60 from seeing incoming traffic on U.S. 93, making it nearly impossible to merge safely, particularly since the U.S. 93 traffic is moving rapidly.”
ADOT’s response: “The mound in the center of the roundabout is designed to block entering traffic from seeing oncoming traffic, while allowing enough sight distance for drivers to determine an acceptable gap in traffic to enter the intersection.
“This mound helps to reduce speeds at the roundabout and provide greater intersection visibility to drivers as they approach the intersection. Roundabouts without center island mounding or other sight obstructions have experienced issues with motorists driving thru the intersection without slowing down because they focus their attention to the road beyond the intersection and not notice the intersection.”
Jacking up the fish: Friends Dick Thomas of Phoenix and Marti Fischer of Scottsdale, acting independently, sent this story:
“I finally got around to going fishing this morning, but after a while, I ran out of worms.
“Then I saw a cottonmouth with a frog in his mouth, and frogs are good bass bait. Knowing the snake couldn’t bite me with the frog in his mouth, I grabbed him right behind the head, took the frog and put it in my bait bucket.
“Now the dilemma was how to release the snake without getting bitten. I grabbed my bottle of Jack Daniels and poured a little whiskey in its mouth. His eyes rolled back, he went limp, I released him into the lake without incident, and carried on my fishing, using the frog.
“A little later, I felt a nudge on my foot.
“There was that same snake with two frogs in his mouth.”
That gave me the idea of using Jack Daniels as bait to catch sand trout. They swim through the sand of the dry Hassayampa River, just as other trout swim through water.
I’ve been using water for bait, but Jack Daniels, seeping through the sand, might attract more fish. I’ll let you know.
Posted by Allan Hall on March 10th, 2010The first article of this series, “Abandoned Mines – Preserve or Destroy?” addressed a few issues regarding preservation versus destruction of abandoned mine workings. A recent example of destructive closure was provided where five shafts at the Mammoth Spar Mine, south of Wickenburg, were backfilled in January 2010 on BLM-administered public land. The objective of the Bureau of Land Management, the State Mine Inspector’s Office, and other agencies is to “proactively close abandoned mines that pose a risk of injury or death.” Although few people would argue against a policy that promotes safety, there has never been complete agreement with the methods used to achieve that objective.
Other voices have spoken for moderation, cautioning that indiscriminate closures of shafts and adits can deprive certain wildlife species of needed habitat. In fact, regulations require federal agencies like the BLM and National Forest Service to assess underground mine workings to ensure that habitats are protected.[1] Not all abandoned mines are suitable for wildlife, but unrelenting pressure on traditional habitats makes these mine workings increasingly important and – in some cases – they may be the last alternative for the long-term survival of some threatened species. Solutions for preserving abandoned mines include fencing, barricades and steel grates or cupolas that permit access for wildlife while keeping humans out. Mines that serve as habitats have been destructively closed in the past, trapping entire colonies of bats in the underground workings. In other cases, excessive human visitation and vandalism have forced bats and other wildlife to abandon some mines and caves. In April 2009, an unknown number of individuals shot and killed up to 90 bats in an abandoned mine in the Superstition Mountains.
The BLM’s policy handbook, Abandoned Mine Lands Policy Handbook states:
Abandoned underground mines provide significant habitat for bats-more than half of North America’s 47 bat species are known to use mines. Acquiring even a basic understanding of bat use of abandoned mines often requires repeated surveys during different seasons. Sealing mines without first evaluating their importance to bats may be one of the single greatest threats to North American bats.”[2]
There are two broad categories of closures: (1) Destructive closure, where the shafts or adits are permanently sealed by blasting or backfilling, and (2) Protective closure, where the shafts or adits remain intact, but access to the underground workings is prevented using some type of barricade.
Protective closures actually have two objectives that frequently operate concurrently: First, to keep people out of a dangerous underground mine without resorting to destructive closure; and second, to protect wildlife that might be using the mine for nesting, birthing, hibernation, night roosting or migration, etc. Protective closure means that the subterranean workings are effectively closed to human visitors. For wildlife, it remains a seasonal or permanent habitat – but with the danger of human disturbance greatly reduced or eliminated.
Figure 1, Simple Fence at Mine Shaft
The simplest and least costly method of protective closure is a fence constructed with metal stakes and wire, as shown in Figure 1.[3] Although this type of structure can be defeated by a vandal with wire cutters, it provides several benefits, including:
- It is a visual warning to visitors.
- With proper signage it serves notice that entry into the workings is criminal trespass.
- It can at least partially relieve potential liability.
- Fences can be quickly installed on site.
- With periodic maintenance these structures can last for decades.
- The materials are not expensive.[4]
Warning signs like that shown above are generally effective for most visitors but unfortunately, are not a deterrent to the small minority of people who choose to enter an abandoned mine in spite of the risks. [5] Not surprisingly, very few fences have been erected – even around abandoned mine shafts that are difficult or impossible to see from a distance in daylight or darkness. In my experience, the mere mention of fencing is met with deprecating remarks from state and federal officials.
When underground mines serve as permanent or seasonal habitats for wildlife, more robust solutions must be considered. One type of barricade is a gate structure like the one shown in Figure 2. These purpose-built gates are installed inside the entrance of an adit and must be designed to conform to its dimensions as well as to the type and condition of native rock in the walls. The variability of these factors is almost limitless and requires customized solutions. There is no “shrink-wrapped” or “one size fits all” gate.
Figure 2, Vertical Gate for Adits – Grandview Mine
Notice that the sides and top conform to the shape of the roof and side walls of the adit. Understandably, vandal-resistant gates such as this require the use of materials that are more costly. However, quality materials and extensive anchoring, using super-strong rods, ensures that this gate will remain in place for a very long time.
Variations of the adit design include gates that incorporate the use of culverts when the entrance to an adit is at risk of future collapse. This type of protective closure is particularly important for maintaining air flow in existing secondary mine openings, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3, Culvert Gate
As with mine adits, shafts come in a seemingly endless variety of shapes and sizes. Surface conditions around the shaft entrance (collar) can further complicate design criteria and affect the choice and cost of materials. Shafts that are particularly large can limit the degree of off site construction; requiring that some assembly be performed at the mine site.
Figure 4 illustrates a type of protective closure known as a cupola that accommodates the requirements of bats and owls in the same mine. Clicking on the image will open a larger graphic.
Figure 4, Cupola Design for Mine Shaft
Protective closures with gates or cupolas are only used when populations of bats, raptors or tortoises have been confirmed. As we will see however, preserving these habitats is far from automatic.
In Part three we will examine a gating project that used the cupola design to protect a colony of California Leaf-Nosed Bats and Barn Owls at a mine shaft near Wickenburg. You will be introduced to two organizations that work with state and federal agencies to protect habitats in abandoned mines.
Footnotes and References:
[1] Access to BLM Abandoned Mine Lands policies and manuals can be reached via these web sites:
Abandoned Mine Land Program Policy Manual Section (MS-3720) http://www.blm.gov/nhp/efoia/wo/manual/manuals.html
AML National Strategic Plan http://www.blm.gov/nhp/efoia/wo/fy06/im2006-145attach1.pdf
AML Website http://www.blm.gov/aml
BLM Manual Sections http://www.blm.gov/nhp/efoia/wo/manual/manuals.html
[2] Bureau of Land Management H-3720-1 Abandoned Mine Lands Policy Handbook. 9.3.3.4. Bat Surveys. Page 61.
[3] The shaft shown in this photo is approximately 200 yards west of the Mammoth Spar Mine. It is one of two shafts in the immediate vicinity that are awaiting external surveys to determine if they serve as habitats.
[4] The approximate retail cost of materials shown in Figure 1 is less than $80.00 (8 metal stakes at $7.00 each and 288 feet of wire at 6 cents per foot, plus signage.)
[5] Infrared sensors placed in abandoned mines in Nevada before and after warning signs were installed revealed no significant reduction in human visitation. Bat Conservation International. 2009. “Managing Abandoned Mines for Bats.” Page 79.
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